The performance that employers look for in individuals rests on ability, motivation, and the support individuals receive; however, motivation is often the missing variable. Motivation is the desire within a person causing that person to act. People usually act for one reason: to reach a goal. Thus, motivation is a goal directed drive, and it seldom occurs in a void. The words need, want, desire, and drive are all similar to motive, from which the word motivation is derived. Understanding motivation is important because performance, reaction to compensation, and other HR concerns are related to motivation. Approaches to understanding motivation differ because many individual theorists have developed their own views and theories. They approach motivation from different starting points, with different ideas in mind, and from different backgrounds. No one approach is considered to be the “ultimate.” Each approach has contributed to the understanding of human motivation.
Content Theories of Motivation
Content theories of motivation are concerned with the needs that people are attempting to satisfy. The most well-known theories are highlighted briefly next.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
One theory of human motivation that has received a great deal of exposure in the past was developed by Abraham Maslow. In this theory, Maslow classified human needs into five categories that ascend in a definite order. Until the more basic needs are adequately fulfilled, a person will not strive to meet higher needs. Maslow’s well-known hierarchy is composed of (1) physiological needs, (2) safety and security needs, (3) belonging and love needs, (4) esteem needs, and (5) self-actualization needs. An assumption often made by those using Maslow’s hierarchy is that workers in modern, technologically advanced societies basically have satisfied their physiological, safety, and belonging needs. Therefore, they will be motivated by the needs for self-esteem, esteem of others, and then self-actualization. Consequently, conditions to satisfy these needs should be present at work; the job it self should be meaningful and motivating.
HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION/HYGIENE THEORY
Frederick Herzberg’s motivation/hygiene theory assumes that one group of factors, motivators, accounts for high levels of motivation. Another group of factors, hygiene, or maintenance factors, can cause discontent with work. Figure 3—4 compares Herzberg’s motivators and hygiene factors with Maslow’s needs of hierarchy. The implication of Herzberg’s research for management and HR practices is that although managers must carefully consider hygiene factors in order to avoid employee dissatisfaction, even if all these maintenance needs are addressed, people may not be motivated to work harder. Only motivators cause employees to exert more effort and thereby attain more productivity, and this theory suggests that managers should utilize the motivators as tools to enhance employee performance.
Process Theories of Motivation
Process theories suggest that a variety of factors may prove to be motivating, depending on the needs of the individual, the situation the individual is in, and the rewards the individual expects for the work done. Theorists who hold to this view do not attempt to fit people into a single category, but rather accept human differences. One process theory by Lyman Porter and E.E. Lawler focuses on the value a person places on a goal as well as the person’s perceptions of workplace equity, or fairness, as factors that influence his or her job behavior. In a work situation, perception is the way an individual views the job. Figure 3—5 contains a simplified Porter and Lawler model, which indicates that motivation is influenced by people’s expectations. If expectations are not met, people may feel that they have been unfairly treated and consequently become dissatisfied.
Using the Porter and Lawler model, suppose that a salesclerk is motivated to expend effort on her job. From this job she expects to receive two types of rewards: intrinsic (internal) and extrinsic (external). For this salesclerk, intrinsic rewards could include a feeling of accomplishment, a feeling of recognition, or other motivators. Extrinsic rewards might be such items as pay, benefits, good working conditions, and other hygiene factors. The salesclerk compares her performance with what she expected and evaluates it in light of both types of rewards she receives. She then reaches some level of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Once this level is reached, it is difficult to determine what she will do. If she is dissatisfied, she might put forth less effort in the future, she might
work harder to get the rewards she wants, or she might just accept her dissatisfaction. If she is highly satisfied, it does not always mean she will work harder. She may even slack off a bit, saying, “I got what I wanted.” The essence of the Porter and Lawler view of motivation is perception. In addition, as the feedback loop in Figure 3—5 indicates, performance leads to satisfaction rather than satisfaction leading to performance.
Content Theories of Motivation
Content theories of motivation are concerned with the needs that people are attempting to satisfy. The most well-known theories are highlighted briefly next.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
One theory of human motivation that has received a great deal of exposure in the past was developed by Abraham Maslow. In this theory, Maslow classified human needs into five categories that ascend in a definite order. Until the more basic needs are adequately fulfilled, a person will not strive to meet higher needs. Maslow’s well-known hierarchy is composed of (1) physiological needs, (2) safety and security needs, (3) belonging and love needs, (4) esteem needs, and (5) self-actualization needs. An assumption often made by those using Maslow’s hierarchy is that workers in modern, technologically advanced societies basically have satisfied their physiological, safety, and belonging needs. Therefore, they will be motivated by the needs for self-esteem, esteem of others, and then self-actualization. Consequently, conditions to satisfy these needs should be present at work; the job it self should be meaningful and motivating.
HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION/HYGIENE THEORY
Frederick Herzberg’s motivation/hygiene theory assumes that one group of factors, motivators, accounts for high levels of motivation. Another group of factors, hygiene, or maintenance factors, can cause discontent with work. Figure 3—4 compares Herzberg’s motivators and hygiene factors with Maslow’s needs of hierarchy. The implication of Herzberg’s research for management and HR practices is that although managers must carefully consider hygiene factors in order to avoid employee dissatisfaction, even if all these maintenance needs are addressed, people may not be motivated to work harder. Only motivators cause employees to exert more effort and thereby attain more productivity, and this theory suggests that managers should utilize the motivators as tools to enhance employee performance.
Process Theories of Motivation
Process theories suggest that a variety of factors may prove to be motivating, depending on the needs of the individual, the situation the individual is in, and the rewards the individual expects for the work done. Theorists who hold to this view do not attempt to fit people into a single category, but rather accept human differences. One process theory by Lyman Porter and E.E. Lawler focuses on the value a person places on a goal as well as the person’s perceptions of workplace equity, or fairness, as factors that influence his or her job behavior. In a work situation, perception is the way an individual views the job. Figure 3—5 contains a simplified Porter and Lawler model, which indicates that motivation is influenced by people’s expectations. If expectations are not met, people may feel that they have been unfairly treated and consequently become dissatisfied.
Using the Porter and Lawler model, suppose that a salesclerk is motivated to expend effort on her job. From this job she expects to receive two types of rewards: intrinsic (internal) and extrinsic (external). For this salesclerk, intrinsic rewards could include a feeling of accomplishment, a feeling of recognition, or other motivators. Extrinsic rewards might be such items as pay, benefits, good working conditions, and other hygiene factors. The salesclerk compares her performance with what she expected and evaluates it in light of both types of rewards she receives. She then reaches some level of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Once this level is reached, it is difficult to determine what she will do. If she is dissatisfied, she might put forth less effort in the future, she might
work harder to get the rewards she wants, or she might just accept her dissatisfaction. If she is highly satisfied, it does not always mean she will work harder. She may even slack off a bit, saying, “I got what I wanted.” The essence of the Porter and Lawler view of motivation is perception. In addition, as the feedback loop in Figure 3—5 indicates, performance leads to satisfaction rather than satisfaction leading to performance.
source by Human Resource Management 9th Edition Robert L. Mathis John H
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